SOP 208.05 METHODS TO IMPLEMENT STRATEGY AND TACTICS

Methods to Implement Strategy and Tactics

Methods are the nuts and bolts steps employed to carry out tactics at a company level. Examples of various methods will now be given for the various tactics discussed above.

Rescue

Methods for rescue involve the actual technique of conducting a search and rescue operation. Search and rescue should begin in the room where the fire began, if possible. Then the operation should proceed to the rooms closest to the fire and in greatest danger. Rescuers should begin at the most dangerous location and work toward the less dangerous location. After searching the fire floor, the floor above should be searched, as the fire could potentially burn through the ceiling or its by-products could move up vertical channels to the floor above. After the floor above is searched, the top-floor is next. Heat and smoke will rise up vertical channels to the top floor and then begin to mushroom out horizontally on that floor. All other floors should then be searched. Be sure to search the entire, building. Smoke, heat and even fire can spread throughout shafts and air handling systems to areas for removal from the seat of the fire.

This is especially true in multi-storied buildings. Fire on the first floor can produce heat and smoke on the 30th floor.

Searchers should go in pairs for their own safety and they must wear breathing apparatus. They should also carry the following equipment when possible: a portable light, axe, hoseline, thermal image camera, and radio. If a hoseline is not taken and the situation is serious, a rope should be used as a lifeline. It is preferable, however, to carry in a hoseline.

The following are methods that should be employed in a search and rescue operation.

Rescuers should take a hoseline with them if the situation is serious and the fire is spreading. Fire can be knocked down while searching and paths of egress can be protected. Rescuers may have to fight their way to a trapped victim. The hoseline can be followed out of the building if rescuers get lost.

Do not wander aimlessly. Have a plan on how to search the building.

Mark room doors with a large "X" that have been searched, close the door, and move on. Firefighters should carry a piece of chalk in their turnout coats to mark doors. Be sure that other firefighters know what the "X" means. This will avoid redundant searching that wastes time. Another technique is to flip the mattress back on itself after searching, but marking the room door is better.

When searching within a dwelling unit, office building, etc. use these methods:

A complete-circuit should be made while keeping close to the wall, feeling under and on beds, and opening and feeling inside of closets. As a final precaution, the room should be crossed diagonally to be sure that no one is lying in its center.

This figure suggests a systematic method of searching a room. Many victims are found in showers, closets, and close to means of egress such as windows and doors. Remember that most fire deaths are related to a combination of smoking and alcoholic beverage consumption. Pause from time to time to listen for gasping, moaning, coughing or crying from victims.

If you cannot figure-out the layout of a room in a hotel, motel, apartment building or office check the layout of the room below or above. Chances are good that the layout is the same on the fire floor. (The Thermal Image Camera in the Video Overlay mode will give you a view of interior objects)

Once inside a room, a complete circuit should be made, keeping close to a wall, feeling under beds, and opening and feeling inside closets. As a final precaution the room should be crossed diagonally to make sure that no one is lying in the center.

When searching inside a unit, move toward light, ventilation or secondary exits. Ventilate as you move if it will not spread the fire.

If heat and smoke prevent entrance to a room, probe with arms, legs, or tools for victims who may be close to the door or window.

Close doors after a room is searched to prevent fire spread.

Remember, the hoseline that the rescuer brought in can be followed to the outside if the rescuer becomes lost.

If trapped in a room with no way out, throw your fire helmet out the window to the ground as a sign to other firefighters that a firefighter is trapped. This sign should be understood by all firefighters as a result of the department training program.

If walls are plaster, sheetrock, wood, etc., the rescuer can cut through the wall and step into another room, if trapped. Even without an axe some interior walls can be kicked through and pulled apart.

To locate victims under beds, insert your leg under the bed and sweep gently back and forth.

The rescuers should at least take a rope with them as a lifeline for use in serious situations if a hoseline has not been taken in.

The rescuers might determine that it is not necessary to evacuate all persons from a building. If occupants are not in danger of being trapped by fire or overcome by smoke, it may be better to leave them in their rooms to avoid confusion and panic. During a minor mattress fire in one room with no or little smoke in the hall of an apartment, hotel or motel, the rescuers may simply knock on other rooms to alert occupants or they may decide not to alert them. They may simply put out the mattress fire, drop the mattress out an exterior window, and cross vent the room. This decision obviously depends on a good size-up by an experienced fire officer.

Rescuers can activate the building alarm and communications system, if so equipped, to alert occupants. The building manager can then call each room to be sure that everyone heard the alarm.

In institutions, hospitals and other buildings where proper horizontal fire separations exist on the fire floor, people may be moved beyond these, walls. As an example, in a hospital or convalescent home fire, it is proper to move patients, in their beds, beyond these firewalls if the fire situation allows for this. Many of these walls are two hour rated with rated fire doors. This way the patients are kept inside and nurses and doctors can tend to them. However, a slight amount of smoke in a hospital or convalescent home can cause panic. This can easily cause death or serious complications in weak, old, and sick people. These types of decisions require comprehensive size-up by an experienced officer.

Firefighters must employ nurses and doctors to help in evacuation. The hospital employees supposedly have been trained in evacuation of their facility. Most states require an evacuation plan that is posted on the walls and exercised regularly.

If a multi-story building has two stairways inside, one of which, leads to the roof, the fire department may want to identify the stairs that go to the roof as the "red stairway". This stairway is used for ventilation. The other stairs are used for evacuation and are called the "green stairway". These would be identified on the preplan drawings. The point is not to route people down the stairway that is being used for ventilation. There is a chance of doing more smoke damage using this procedure but at this point the strategic priority is rescue. All other operations support the rescue objective. Obviously, there are considerations here, such as the danger of drawing fire into uninvolved portions of the building. This has to be evaluated by the fire officer as part of his decision-making process.

Stairways are the best method to use for evacuation if they are tenable and intact. Stairway doors must not be blocked open when they open onto floors in the building. They can easily fill with smoke, heat and fire.

Elevators are a dangerous method of evacuation and should be avoided. Fire departments should have procedures and methods for taking control of elevators at fires. Fire can call the car to the fire floor by the effect of heat on the call button. Fire can also burn through elevator shaft doors and into the shaft. This occurred at the MGM Grand fire. Various states are adopting fire safety laws regarding elevators due to the serious problem they present.

Ladders may have to be used for rescue. If people are showing at windows on various floors, raise ladders to the highest floor as soon as possible. Trapped people on upper floors may jump towards a ladder raised to lower floors. .

Aerials provide a continuous path from a window, fire escape, or roof to the ground and are safer than ground ladders. Elevating platforms offer greater maneuverability than aerials when plucking people from various locations on a building.

Bullhorns and amplifiers on apparatus or police cars should be used to encourage people to stay in their rooms and not jump. Instructions and reassuring statements can be made via these devices.

Use of a life net is the last resort. It takes about 10 men to hold a met properly. The value of a net is questionable beyond the 3rd floor.

One of the best methods in rescue is for two firefighters to aggressively get a hoseline into the seat of the fire from the interior of the building. They can darken down the fire while rescue operations continue. Get a line between the fire and the occupants and protect the means of egress. Do not operate hoselines into the building from the outside when people are inside. The stream can push the fire right to the people and the stream can scald victims. Breathing superheated steam can kill them. Make an interior attack whenever possible and maintain the thermal balance of the interior atmosphere. The line size should be 1 1/2" or 1 3/4".

Another common method is for a truck company to commit to search and rescue while the engine company attacks the fire while backing up the truck company.

Various methods of ventilation may be employed to assist in search and rescue. A very effective method in old buildings with open stairways is to open up over the stairway to channel and release smoke, heat and fire. This prevents mushrooming and flashover. It also helps keep people from being overcome until rescuers can get to them. Analysis of major hotel fires has resulted in the realization that ventilation is needed immediately and is an important rescue tool.

Horizontal ventilation and ventilation using smoke ejectors may be appropriate. Air handling systems should be shut down or controlled to prevent travel of smoke and heat.

In mobile homes with only one door or with both doors at one end of the home, a rescue saw may have to be used to cut a hole through the metal wall to get to a victim. Disconnect the electricity before doing this.

Firefighters must be sure not to neglect the rear of the building. In the excitement of a fire all units seem to congregate at the front. Many lives are lost at the rear of buildings, upstairs.

Hoselines can be taken in on upper floor to keep fire from coming up stairs while people evacuate. This may be necessary when stairs are untenable or burned through.

Firefighters must keep in mind that old fire escapes on the exterior of buildings can become "barbeque grills" if fire comes out of the building and under the fire escape. Fire escapes can also collapse.

The most common rescue situation will probably occur in the two-story house. The most dangerous location is in upstairs bedrooms.

Firefighters must keep fire out of stairwells. ''The stairway is the lifeline of a multi-story building and needs to be kept intact.

A method for the first-in engine company to use in carrying out rescue at a house fire may be to park the engine and have the crew-immediately go inside (with breathing apparatus on) for search and rescue. The company officer continues his size-up and radio transmissions, giving orders to incoming units. His strategy is rescue. His tactic is to get inside the building and begin search and rescue operations. His method is to commit his two-man crew to go in together, with breathing apparatus, and begin search and rescue. He then gives the second-in engine company the strategy of confinement and extinguishment. We are assuming there is no exposure hazard in this scenario.

Exposure Protection

Methods used in exposure protection vary as to the apparatus, manpower, equipment, and water supply available. Here are some examples.

Raise an aerial or elevated platform and apply heavy fog stream on exposure and on fire building. A sweep of an exposure with a stream will indicate, by the steam generated if it is hot, glass windows must be kept cool and intact. Don't waste time using “water curtains” between buildings. Remember that radiated heat passes right through water. Put the water on the exposures and on the fire. The exposure in the direction of wind travel is probably the one most vulnerable. This, of course, depends upon construction and occupancy.

Place a deck gun or-portable monitor in operation. Don't park apparatus in alleys or between closely built structures. Use portable equipment that can be abandoned.

Operate lines into the fire from the exposed building's roof or fire escape. Put a monitor on an upper floor or roof of the exposed building, if necessary. This helps to protect the exposure while fighting the fire.

Relocate vehicles, trailers, etc., out of the path of the fire.

Get forklifts, bulldozers, etc., to move stock and contents in a building or storage yard out of the path of heat and fire.

Send a company into the exposure with a hoseline to extinguish any fire. Have them stand by on the uninvolved side of exposed walls and fire doors. They should move stock, contents, etc. away from walls that are exposed to the fire. They must also check all exterior doors and windows to be sure they are shut. This company should also maintain a patrol of the entire interior on each floor.

Shut off the air handling system in the exposed buildings. A salvage cover could be placed over the intake, after the system is shut down. Big losses have been suffered when exposed buildings were filled with smoke from a nearby fire. This has occurred with both wildland fires and structural fires.

A company should lay into the sprinkler system of the exposed building with two lines. The engine should be hooked up and ready to pump. The crew of this company should be sure all system valves are on. It is not necessary to charge these lines until the exposure is directly threatened by fire or excessive heat.

Roofs of exposed buildings must be checked by one or two men to ensure brands are not igniting the roofs. Larger cities have helicopters available and can use them for observation of fire spread and for fire-spread prediction.

Constant foot patrol of the exteriors of exposures on all sides of the fire must be maintained. An engine company might be assigned the tactic of checking for fire extension on the next city block. The method employed may be to patrol with the apparatus or to park the engine in a centralized location. Exposed structures can be checked and secured. Lines can be pulled to protect exposures. Wood shingle roofs can be soaked.

For open fires (lumber yards, storage yards, etc.) one method to employ is to try to get ahead of the fire by getting on the lee side with handlines or monitors, or by flanking the fire at the lee end with heavy streams. Be very cautious when spotting apparatus on the lee side of a fire. It may get overrun, hose beds can ignite, lights can melt, paint can blister, and the apparatus may have to be abandoned due to an untenable situation. Pump operators can receive burns while trying to continue pumping and while trying to protect their apparatus in untenable positions.

The best method on large open fires is heavy fog streams preferably operated from unmanned positions. The fire must be surrounded. There is no valid reason for putting firefighters in dangerous positions at this type of fire. A review of the film BLEVE will bring this to mind as you recall what happened to the firefighter on the ladder pipe.

Major petrochemical fires require that methods be applied cautiously and pessimistically. The fire officer must assume that a product release, container failure, BLEVE or major explosion may occur. He must be sure his approach method and firefighting methods allow his crew and equipment maximum protection, including an escape route.

On open fires, one crewmember must be watchful so that fire does not come around the crew and trap them. If streams are having no effect and exposures are becoming ignited or petrochemical containers are venting with increased intensity, it is time to back off to a safe position and reevaluate your methods.

At fires in large trash piles or trash dumpsters next to buildings, send someone to inspect the roof of the building.

Sparks and brands can ignite combustible roofs. Brands, sparks and smoke can get pulled into the building through the air handling system. Take a look into a building through the windows to see any indication of fire or smoke. If spread into the building is suspected, open up the building without hesitation.

Confinement

Some examples of methods employed for confinement within the building of fire origin are the following:

Shut fire doors and windows in the building.

Bring hoselines to uninvolved sides of firewalls, non-rated walls, fire doors, non-rated doors, etc. within the building.

Shut the door to the room of origin to confine the fire.

Bring hoselines into the seat of the fire

from the uninvolved portion of the building. This is a KEY POINT in confinement procedures.

Send a man to shut off the air handling system.

Assign men to check the six sides of the fire. They will check for:

Hot walls in adjoining areas

Conduction of heat and fire along beams pipes, floor joists

Excessive heat in uninvolved rooms

Heat, smoke, or fire in attics, cocklofts and other crawl spaces. Get into the space and check it out. Open the space if necessary.

Fire coming out of light shafts and stair shafts on upper floors.

Fire travel up light wells

Doors on stairways and other vertical openings that need closing

Position of the door joining the garage and the house. Shut it and assign a man with a hoseline to keep fire from coming through this door.

Windows that need to be shut on upper floors

Multiple set fires

Smoke, heat, and fire on upper floors. Fire can lap up and come in upper windows. Wood window frames can ignite and window glass can fail, allowing fire to enter the room. Drapes can ignite due to heat.

At fires in adjoining occupancies with common attics, men must get into the attic on each side of fire to check for extension. This will mean opening up the stores or units on both sides of the fire and getting into those units with lines. Use a 1 1/2" or 1 3/4" line with a fog nozzle'' If ceiling is suspended type, tiles can be pushed up by hand using a pike pole or other implement. A nozzle can be turned on in a straight stream to blow the tiles out of the frames if time is of the essence. Do not try to locate this type of attic fire by opening the roof. By the time the roof is opened the fire will probably be past that point and the fire department ends up chasing the fire.

If there is any chance of fire in the attic of any occupancy, it must be checked immediately.

A company can send two men with breathing apparatus and an interior handline to the floor above a fire to stop vertical spread.

In basement or cellar fires, the first tactical position is on the first floor to protect from vertical extension. Cover the basement door. An effective method of attack at this point may be to cut a hole in the floor and drop a distributor nozzle into the fire. Water can also be applied through street level exterior vents. if possible and safe to do so, a company can take a line down the stairs into the basement or cellar. Use exterior stairs if available. These are hot, smokey, dangerous fires that may require an initial exterior attack while protecting against vertical extension until entrance can be safely be made. At underground parking garages, lines are taken into the. building to prevent extension while attack lines go into garage from the outside. Always check entire building and attic for possible fire extension from basement or cellar fires.

When you are first-in at a fire in a multi-story building and the fire is starting to lap on the exterior of the building, one method to employ in confinement may be to apply a quick blast with a heavy stream from the street (deck gun) to darken down exterior lapping fire until interior lines can get to the seat of the fire. Obviously, caution is necessary in order not to drive the fire into the building or in on occupants. When the interior line gets to the seat of fire, the crew on that line aims their stream through the window as a sign that they have made it to the fire. Therefore, the engineer must turn off the street stream. The street stream is then shot over the roof or turned away until shut off. This type of operation takes practice on the drill ground and requires the proper type of equipment.

Ventilation is a confinement tool. It can be used to stop the horizontal spread of fire by channeling it through a ventilation opening. It is also used to release excessive heat that causes flashover and fire extension.

As stated before, the most basic confinement method is an interior attack from the uninvolved portion of the building. This should be done in such a manner as to cut off the spread and put out the fire as a line moves to the seat. If the fire is not approached in this manner it can be driven into the uninvolved areas of the building. If a fire is venting itself out a window of a room and is not causing any other problem, push the fire on out the window, attacking it from the uninvolved side of the fire.

Forcible entry crews should be assigned to open up walls, floors and other hidden spaces to detect fire spread. This is especially true with balloon and other type wood ,frame construction, particularly wood lath and plaster walls. Be sure to check for fire spread along floor joists also

At chimney fires, the 4 sides of the chimney must be checked where it passes through the ceiling, attic, roof, and other enclosed' spaces. Old brick mortar can fail and fire can get out of the chimney.

At duct fires, such as at restaurants, check the four sides of the duct along its travel and send a man to the roof to check for ignition of grease on the roof.

At fires in rack storage warehouses lines must be brought in to cut off horizontal spread in the racks, especially if the racks are not sprinklered. Use 1 1/2" or 1 3/4" lines and come in on both ends of the racks to pinch off horizontal spread.

Stock and combustibles can be moved away from walls or out of the path of fire in a building by truckmen, warehouse crews, etc. Forklifts can be used effectively for this.

When attempting to confine a fire in the attic, walls, or other concealed space and it is doubtful whether its spread has abated, do not hesitate to open up walls and pull down ceilings. Hesitation and conservatism during fire in concealed spaces has resulted in the loss of many buildings. Open up the space with a power saw or axe to the point where clean wood exists. if you find cobwebs as you open up, that is a pretty good sign you are beyond the fire spread. Be sure that you are not finding old char from a previous fire. This can be deceiving and cause unnecessary damage.

You have to be able to get at the fire to put it out. Sheetrock or plaster is inexpensive compared with rebuilding the entire structure after the fire.

Send a man to check for vertical extension through pipe raceways, utility shafts, cable shafts, etc.

Extinguishment

Methods of extinguishment are discussed at length in various parts of this course. It is sufficient to say at this point that there is'', no substitute for aggressive, interior firefighting whenever it is possible. The hose- line must be kept moving and not become static. Nozzlemen must be aggressive and be proficient at nozzle operations. The methods involve selection of proper line size; nozzle type, stream pattern and method of extinguishment (indirect, direct, combination). Interior lines should always have two firefighters on them. This allows them to be aggressive lines and provide more safety for the firefighters. These men must understand fire behavior in order not to panic and to be able to react effectively to backdraft, flashover, lapping, etc. They must know when and how to back out of a tough situation. The use of the traditional fire helmet, which exposed the ears, allowed the firefighter to use a built in heat detecting device his ears. One key point that will be discussed later is the avoidance of opposing hoselines inside of a fire area. Opposing lines can drive heat,. smoke and fire on to other attack crews. Another key point that will be discussed is driving or pushing the fire with the fog streams. This can occur when lines are operated into buildings from the exterior; thus driving fire further into the building. It can also happen in confined spaces such as basements or cellars. If fog lines are advancing in a basement and there is no opening ahead of them, trapped fire gases may ignite and flashback. Flame itself can be pushed by fog streams. This is very true in petroleum fires. This points out another reason for making an interior attack from the uninvolved portion on a structure fire.

Overhaul

The following practices regarding overhaul are generally common.

Be sure utilities are secured before beginning overhaul.

Feel walls, ceilings, floors, etc. with the palm of your hand. If you cannot hold your hand on the wall due to the heat, open up the wall. There may be fire inside if a wall is simply warm, you may want to wait a little while before opening up. (The walls may be checked by using the thermal image camera.) The warmth may only be residual heat. "If in doubt; tear it out" or open up, however. Open up until you get to clean wood with no char. A good indication that you have gotten to a location in a wall that fire has not passed is the presence of cobwebs. Do not, however, open up unnecessarily. Be sure that the char you observe is not from a previous fire.

Check construction members that have been involved. Be sure to inspect for fire where walls join roofs and floors. Fire can burrow into these materials and burn for a long time. Be especially wary where wood boards overlap. If fire is suspected at these overlaps, drive a wedge between the overlap to open it up for inspection.

Check the six sides of the fire. Send firefighters below the fire to inspect for burning debris that may have fallen. Think to yourself: "If I was a fire,. where would I go?"

Inspect all shafts, pipe chases and other possible vertical and horizontal routes of fire travel. Explore the same areas you opened up during firefighting, starting at the point of origin.

Send a firefighter to crawl through the attic above the fire to check for extension. Check the attic, especially at basement fires in balloon construction. Fire can travel up the walls and get into the attic.

Remove all stock, contents and debris that have been ignited, from the building unless you are positive that reignition is impossible. Remove baled materials from the center of upper floors if water has been absorbed by them. This will relieve weight imposed on the floor. Remove the bales from the building if there is a possibility of fire in them. Pull apart piles of combustibles (rags, cotton,' Straw, etc.) if the fire could be inside.

Do not leave burned couches, chairs, and mattresses in a dwelling. After a fire is put out in a mattress or couch many times, it has rekindled later. Take it outside and overhaul it by opening up to the stuffing. Soak stuffing in a barrel or bucket of water. Leave it outside away from structures. Use barrels full of water to soak debris. Leave these barrels outside away from structures.

Be sure to pull out or inspect debris in residential garages. Contents stored on rafters above ground are susceptible to hidden fire..

Large exterior piles of combustibles may have to be pulled apart to get at the fire. Bulldozers may have to be used. Piles are wet down by heavy streams as they are pulled apart. Be alert for flare-ups as material is pulled apart, thus exposing fire. These piles may include baled and tightly compressed fibers, rubber products, compost piles, lumber, rags, etc. Don't discard bolts of cloth. They-'usually are only burned or scorched on the outer roll and ends. Dip them in water and this remainder of the cloth can be salvaged. Leave the bolts outside of building in a protected location.

At fires in kitchens check all sides of the vent pipe along its route of travel. Check inside kitchen cabinets closely for evidence of fire.

Roof fires may require the stripping away of burned roofing material. Use the pick head-of an axe, pike pole, shovels, etc. to strip off wood shingles and other roof coverings. Use chain saws or rescue saws to cut out sections of roof construction. When you are on a roof to find the area over the fire, look for bubbling tar if the roof is papered. Wood shake roofs will show smoke leakage above hot areas and will ignite with ease. Be very cautious when overhauling on roofs. Remember that fire is an insult to a building and has weakened the structure. The roof is one of the weakest components of the structure, particularly in climates where cold weather and snow are a problem.

Trussed and other lightweight roofs may be about to fall and can fall when a firefighter walks across them. Be cautious when chopping or using sledgehammers, etc. on roofs that may be weakened by fire. This may also cause collapse.

Be very alert to overhaul rubber materials such as tires. Rubber materials can spontaneously ignite hours after the fire. Rubber products involved in a fire should be removed from the building and soaked.

The fire sprinkler system must be restored as part of the overhaul. Kitchen hood systems must also be recharged and made ready for action prior to reactivation of the cooking equipment.

When fire has burned around soil lines, piping, pipe chases or involved a chimney, check every floor, the attic and the roof.

Be sure that firefighters do not destroy, alter or move evidence of the fire cause-. Wait until the fire investigation is completed before overhauling or get the fire investigator's O.K. to overhaul a certain area if overhaul is urgent. Light spray from small nozzles can be used if extinguishment is necessary in a suspicious area. The point is, do not destroy or alter the evidence. Firefighters can be in too big a hurry to overhaul and return to quarters.

Remember that fire investigation is an important part of firefighting. When the evidence is shoveled out of the building on to the front lawn or walkway, prior to the investigation, there is little chance of getting a conviction on an arson case.

Be careful when using sledgehammers and saws within a building during overhaul. The use of these tools can cause a structure to be further weakened. If a structure is too dangerous to overhaul or is too far gone, pull out of the building and flood the smoldering areas. Leave a company or a watch line overnight if needed.

Remove and protect valuable business records, personal records, books, photos, coin collections, antiques etc.. Try not to soak them when overhauling.

Do not pull ceilings and sidewalls down on top of salvageable material. Unnecessary damage is done and more work is created when you try to get at the covered material later on.

Do not attempt to drag smoldering, water soaked material through the residence and down stairs. It is clumsy, heavy and further damage will be done to the residence. If, for example, a mattress being carried out reignites, then the fire has to be extinguished again. A fire may then occur where the mattress is set down for extinguishment. Smoke ejectors in use in other parts of the residence can cause the mattress to "light up" as it passes the ejector's air stream. Roll the mattress up and tie it before taking it out. If a window is available, and it is safe to do so, throw the mattress out the window.

Be cautious in places where dust explosions may occur. Use low-pressure fog on bins or containers with smoldering dusts in them. Exercise caution and get expert opinions, if necessary, before handling or moving hazardous materials.

At lumberyard fires, try to overhaul without pulling piles apart. The clutter and congestion caused by boards moved around and blocking roadways, etc. causes a major problem. If possible, use hoselines or garden hoses shoved into piles, piercing applicators, wet water, etc. Leave a watch line and a firefighter or a company at the scene. If in doubt, pull the piles apart, however. Break down only the piles that indicate definite involvement. Lift trucks can be used to advantage in this operation.

If food stocks in stores or restaurants have been involved or damaged, call the health department.

Locations where floor or ceiling joists overlap girders should be checked. Inspect the joist ends for fire. Fire can hide in these locations.

Be alert not to overload upper floors with water when overhauling. Be cautious when working on these floors after a major fire where large amounts of water have been used.

Water two inches deep on a 40' by 80' floor will add 16 tons of weight to the structure. If the structure is not designed to hold this weight, collapse is very possible.

Ventilation

Ventilation is also discussed somewhat in other sections of this course. At this point it is sufficient to state that the method selected will depend on the situation and tire purpose for the ventilation. If ventilation is for rescue, to channel fire, or to remove heat, rooftop ventilation is generally employed. This is done by opening penthouse doors over stairways, removing glass from skylights, re- -moving roof vents, or-opening the roof with power saws.

If ventilation is required to remove smoke only, cross ventilation is typically used, employing smoke ejectors or by taking advantage of wind direction. It is seldom necessary to open a roof at a house fire and should be avoided when possible in order to minimize damage.

In buildings with air conditioning systems, the system may be used to exhaust smoke. It is so designed if operation is understood by the fire department, when performed by the building engineer under direction of the fire department.

Some suggestions regarding ventilation include the following.

Use the method that gets the job done with the least damage and without spreading the fire.

Take a hoseline to the roof as a back up when ventilating.

Wear breathing apparatus.

Call for lighting at night.

Locate hot spots on roof by observing bubbling tar, feeling hot spots, etc.

1. Be cautious on roofs, especially. plywood. If in doubt as to stability get off. Have a minimum number of men on the roof so that the roof is not overloaded.

2. Be sure to take a pike pole with you to the roof. This is used to poke down any obstructions.(ceilings, etc.) after cutting the hole in the roof. If nothing comes out of a vent hole after opening the roof, probe for obstructions.

3. One large ventilation hole in the roof over the fire is better than many small ones. For example, an 8' by 8' hole is 64 square feet, a 2' x 2' hole is 4 square feet or sixteen times smaller.

4. Be sure that when the roof opening is made the opening is over the fire and not over some uninvolved area of the building. Avoid drawing fire through uninvolved parts of a building.

5. Do not cut through trusses or support beams. Cut all boards and remove them or the atmosphere will become untenable.

6. Work with the wind to your back.

7. When possible, remove roof ventilators, skylights, etc., rather than having to cut open the roof.

Basements can be vented at street doors or windows or by cutting a hole in the floor of the first floor level next to a window. Allow the smoke to come out of the hole and out the exterior window with the aid of a smoke ejector. Crews must be trained in the proper use of smoke ejectors so that drapes are not drawn into the ejector, the fire is not accelerated, and so that the ejector will be located in an effective manner.

If ventilating via elevator shafts, be sure car is below the floor being ventilated. Venting heat and fire into elevator shafts can damage cables and machinery. Be aware of the potential of spreading fire to an upper floor through shaft doors.

When pre-cast concrete roofs are present, try to ventilate in some other manner. Cutting through concrete roofs is very time consuming, labor intensive and requires special saw blades.

Shingles can be raked off with a: shovel or pulled off using a pick head axe or a pike pole.

On tile roofs, be careful of wet tiles that could cause firefighters to slip and fall. Tiles are also hard to remove or break open. Try another way of ventilation first. Maybe the sidewall of a building, near the top, can be opened. Perhaps lower floors can be ventilated up stairs, shafts, holes, etc. to the top floor. Then the top floor can be cross ventilated out windows.

On buildings with smoke vents, be careful not to stand next to them. They can spring open due to actuation by smoke or heat and cause serious injury. They can be opened manually by firefighters.

Begin ventilation at top of structures and then proceed down floor by floor. If the reverse is done, floors will become untenable for firefighters.

Do not send firefighters up open interior stairs to open a stairway door or hatch on roof. They can be trapped by rising heat and fire. Raise a ladder to the roof or come across on to the roof from another building. If the building has an exterior fire escape, this could be used. A properly enclosed stairway can be used for going to the roof. Do not vent so that the path of escape of the firefighter is cut off. Plan an escape route from the roof prior to opening up.

Be sure that hose streams are not directed down ventilation openings or the vent will be nullified.

Be sure all personnel know where holes are cut or where skylights have been removed, so that no one falls. Turn skylights upside down after removal, as an indication that they are removed.

Hot air registers in a building can be used by removing the grill and pushing down the hot air duct.

Windows on upper floors can be ventilated by dropping the top of a ladder :into them. Look out for glass sliding down the beams.

When breaking windows on upper floors of high rise buildings, remember that flying chards of glass can fly for long distances and act as a guillotine. It is better to use suction cups, such as those used by grazers, to pull glass into the building. Various fire departments experienced in high-rise fire fighting have devised unique ways of opening upper floor windows by removing the glass into the building. Limit ventilation methods in a high rise to use of windows or mechanical means. Don't endanger upper floor occupants by venting up stairways or elevator shafts.

You need not hesitate about breaking heat-stained or cracked plate glass. It is ruined anyway.

Be careful that ventilation via windows does not serve to cause the fire to lap up the exterior of the building.

Do not ventilate below firefighters or people on fire escapes. Don't ventilate into a stairway being used for evacuation. Vent away from it.

If there is a possibility of heavier than air gases being present, create a cross vent at various floors and open above the fire.

Open cocklofts over hot spots or at the highest point.

Look for signs of possible backdraft condition before ventilating.

Remember, finally, that rooftop ventilation may not work in tall buildings due to the possibility of stratification.

Salvage

Salvage can include various methods.

Use salvage covers to cover exposes stock, furnishings, and contents on the fire floor and floor below. Anticipate the direction of fire, smoke, steam and water and protect these areas.

Mopping, sump pumping, water vacuuming or using existing drains are the common methods of water removal.

Remove toilets so that the drain at floor level can be used to remove water. Then use sawdust to direct the path of water on floors or use squeegees to direct and remove water from the building. Use stairways or windows to remove water via chutes made from salvage covers and laid upon ladders. Holes in floors may have to be cut using augers to relieve water weight. Catchalls and basins to catch water can be made using salvage covers.

Remove salvageable goods from the structure if structure is heavily damaged and susceptible to rekindling. Protect these furnishings and goods from theft and the weather.

Ceilings or floors below the fire may get soaked with water and then fall onto contents. It may be best to remove the contents from the floor below the fire if you suspect this may happen. At least cover all the contents with salvage covers. In attic fires, it is common that the ceiling finally drops due to water and-firefighting operations.

Search all debris for valuables. Use chamois to dry off wood furniture, valuable machinery, computers, office equipment, etc. Breakable objects, such as glassware, must be carefully removed from tables or counters and protected. When fragile items, glass counters, or shelving that are not strong enough to support firefighters are covered, put a breakable item on top of the cover to indicate that fragile items are underneath.

Smoke deodorant should be applied using automatic dispensing equipment or spray bottles.

Holes in roofs, windows or door openings should be covered up to secure-the building from weather. Plastic sheeting can be used with wood lath strips at the edges for nailing. Tar paper rolls can also be used. Plywood sheeting also works well.

Firefighters should be sent to be sure floor drains and scuppers are open and unclogged. Check scuppers on roofs also.

Debris bags should be used to shovel debris for Carrying to the outside of a building.

It may be necessary to cut the exterior wall out from the window sill to the floor on an upper floor if the construction allows to remove heavy contents or bales from an upper floor. They can be pushed out of the opening to the ground below. The ground area must be secured so that people are kept away from the drop zone.

In summary, for most fires, salvage methods will consist of the application of salvage covers using one man throws, use of the water vacuum and smoke deodorant.

Trenching

In fire department terminology, a trench is a cut that is placed in the roof of a structure (creating a furrow, or ditch) that divides a portion of the roof that is burning from a portion of the roof that is not burning. When properly employed and coordinated with other tactics, the trench cut will confine a cockloft fire to a selected area of the roof.

It must be emphasized that a trench cut is not a main ventilation opening and should not be made until the ventilation opening is completed. It should also remembered that a trench cut is a defensive ventilation procedure.

Under the right circumstances, the trench cut can be used effectively at cockloft fires in any building with a large roof area. Many departments have had notable success with this tactic at cockloft fires in large area multiple dwellings, particularly those of an "H," "U," "0," or similar configuration.

Roof tactics at a verified cockloft fire in the rear of the "A" wing (see illustration) of an "H" type building, for example, would progress as follows. First, and this is the most important tactic, a large (8' x 8') primary hole is opened directly over the main body of fire. While this hole is being cut, a saw or an ax can be used to place a small observation hole in the throat near the point where the rear of the "A" wing turns into the throat. This will be a high point in the cockloft and consequently an area to which fire will travel. If fire is not evident at the throat observation hole, time may be available to cut a trench that will isolate the rear of the "A" wing from both the throat and the front of the "A" wing. In the event. that fire is seen at the throat observation hole," a trench must be quickly cut in the throat to isolate the "A" wing from the "B".

To be effective, the trench should be at least 3' wide, and cut from wall to wall, or other suitable fire stops such as a stair or elevator bulkhead. Failure to complete a trench may allow a fire to pass to the other side of the trench.

The trench should be cut about 20 feet from the initial vent hole. It should be cut at the narrowest available roof section taking advantage of bulkhead structures, outside walls, skylights, etc. Do not depend on firewalls constructed within the structure. If the fire is heavy, and the first trench cut appears doubtful to stop the spread of fire or if during the trenching operation, there are indications of fire existing in the cockloft beneath you, then retreat and start a second trench a greater distance from your previous position even if this means giving up the entire wing. Once the trench has been cut, it should not be walked upon, as it will not support the weight of a firefighters if fire does not pass the trench your mission was successful.

The trench should also be cut about twenty feet from the main ventilation hole, and in the path of expected fire travel. It is not opened; however, until it has been determined that fire is, indeed, traveling toward it. The direction of fire travel can be observed through small openings made in the roof. Similar openings are placed in the roof on the fireside of the trench cut. These small openings are put far enough forward of the trench so-that once fire is seen through them, time will be available to open the trench before the fire can pass it. It is vital to the safety Of firefighters on the top floor and roof that the trench 'remain unopened until fire reaches the forward observation holes, The air flow that is established when the trench is opened prematurely will, more often than not, draw the fire across the cockloft to the new opening. Fire spreading in this manner will often outrace the extinguishing efforts of units on the floor below, require the evacuation of the roof, and, ultimately, result in the transmission of additional alarms.

The small observation openings must be cut fast. Triangular or kerf cuts are usually used. The “triangular” cut requires three blade insertions into the roof, while the kerf cut requires only one. Each has its advantages. The triangular cut can be used to accommodate a bent tip nozzle. The kerf cut can be made faster of course, and, if needed later, can be expanded to a triangular opening. Several kerf cuts can be made quickly in front of the trench to expose several bays of the cockloft.

The precut trench is opened rapidly from end to end. The ends must be checked to make certain that there is no way for the fire to pass. Roofing materials at the ends of the trench that cannot be cut with the saw must be removed with an ax or other tool. As soon as the trench is opened, the ceiling below must be pushed down. This is essential to the creation of the desired airflow. With the trench open and the ceiling down, the heated fire gases at the trench will rise through the opening. The effect will be an airflow; laterally from the cockloft, and up from below. Fire in the cockloft will not be able to overcome the upward pressure from below, nor the opposing airflow from the cockloft on the safe side of the trench. The fire should not be able to jump the trench. In addition, dropping the ceiling removes combustible material from the path of the feeding fire and, in effect, creates a "fire break."

To be certain that fire has not already-passed the trench, observation holes must be placed in the roof on the safe side of the trench as well. If it is determined that fire has passed the trench (by observation of cuts, the trench itself, or ceilings that have been pulled from below), a second, more distant trench should be cut. The first trench, completely open from end to end, will act as a ventilation hole and delay fire spread while the second trench is cut and opened. Consistent with the direction of fire travel, advantage should be taken, once again, of the inverted roof design in selecting the location of the second trench.

Communications between the roof and top floor are essential if roof operations are to be successful. The officer in command of operations on the top floor must know the location of the trench cut. Since the trench is intended to be the final stop, this officer must have the area beneath. The trench continually monitored. For most serious cockloft fires, a hoseline should be positioned on the top floor beneath the trench. This line, with its higher degree of mobility, can be used to prevent the fire from passing the trench with greater efficiency than the one operating from above. When a member is assigned to open ceilings in this area, and it is adequately protected by a hoseline, an aggressive attack can then be made on the fire that is, at that point, contained.

The most important aspect of roof firefighting operations is safety. Therefore, the following points should be remembered relative to safety and trenching:

Safety awareness should be enhanced.

At least two escape routes should be present.

Once the decision is made to open the trench, roof operations change from offensive to defensive. The roof on the fireside of the trench is, in fact, given up to the fire. There is no longer a need to maintain firefighters on the relinquished part of the roof. They must be withdrawn to the safe side of the roof.

The trench is not a panacea for roof or cockloft fires. It is merely a tactic that can be used with other proven roof fire attack methods to effect faster fire control and extinguishment. Trenching is a tactic that is subordinate to the primary task of providing roof ventilation.

After opening the main ventilation hole, however, the trench tactic, if initiated with both scrupulous attention to timing and exceptional awareness to safety, will not only reduce total property loss, but considerably shorten operating time as well.

Methods of Forcible Entry

Here are some of the ordinary techniques for accomplishing forcible entry.

Doors

Check the door or window to be sure it is locked before breaking in. Check for a guard, watchman or janitor on duty who could open the door.

Use an axe, ram bar, or pry bar between the door and frame near the latch to force doors that have hinges on one side. Check for external hinge pins - which can be removed with hand tools.

Sliding glass doors can many times be pried up and out of the track and removed without breaking. The locking device is usually a cheaply made device that gives way easily.

Metal-doors can be cut through quickly with a rescue-saw.

Elevator doors require specialized opening techniques, depending on the type. Check with the manufacturer of local elevators for forcible entry information. Put this information on your preplan.

If there is a choice between breaking plate glass or tempered glass, break the plate glass. It is cheaper. It is usually cheaper to break a window next to a door and reach in to open the door, rather than breaking the door down.

Keep in mind that rear doors of occupancies are usually barred and secured against crime. Try to get in through the front whenever possible.

Cutting the padlock with a bolt cutter opens padlocked doors or the lock can be twisted off with a claw tool.

Thin panels in wood doors can be removed and firefighters can reach in and open the door.

On double doors (2 doors) one door is probably bolted top and bottom, while the other operates as a single hinged door and may be treated as such. First, notice how they swing. If they swing inward there will probably be weather stripping attached to one door, covering the crack between the doors. Remove this and then insert an axe between the doors to pry apart. If the door opens out, the strip is probably on the door which is used the most.

Tempered glass in doors can fracture violently and disintegrate. Tempered glass doors are difficult to force and costly to repair. Firefighters may be able to drive out the lock cylinder with a bar. The best thing to do is find another way to get in. If you can’t, strike the glass with a sharp rap with the point of a pick axe or other sharp tool. Stand to the side with your back to the glass and look away while striking glass.

Single sliding doors are harder to open than double sliding doors because their fastening is more secure. The quickest way is to remove a door panel, step through, and open the inside lock.

Double sliding doors are usually fastened together inside with a catch hook, padlock, or hasp and pin. Drive the blade of an axe in below the fastener to spread the door, and then use another axe or punch to drive up the hook out of its eye. If this does not work, use a ram bar or other bar or chisel and drive it in against the hasp to break-hasp off the door. Of course, if the lock is on the outside, the forcible entry is made easier because you can see the locking device and select the best method. Another method on this type of door is employ the use of the power rescue saw to cut through the lock or the door itself. Hydraulic tools such as the "jaws of life" can be used on these doors also.

Vertical and horizontal fire doors are usually not fastened. Try them first but remember they may need a little forcing with a bar to get them to move.

Perhaps the quickest way to deal with rolling and lift doors is to cut a hole in the door with the power saw. There are different types of locks on these doors. They might be secured to the floor, inside the building, or at the center of the door. They could also have two horizontal sliding catches one at each side of the door which goes into the door frame. If there is a small pedestrian door next to the big door, try it. It may be easier to just adopt a policy that any large doors, if locked, will be cut open using a power saw. This way, precious time is not wasted at night, in poor light, trying to find out what type of fastening device the door has.

At a residential fire, it may be most expedient in a rescue situation to kick the door if the door swings in. Kick below the lock mechanism. Generally, damage will be limited to the door frame and molding. If more time can be taken, use a pry bar, axe, or ram bar to pry door lock away from the hole in the frame.

Windows

Try to avoid breaking glass. If you have to break it, stand to the side and strike it with an axe held horizontally. Hit the glass with the flat side of the axe. Be sure that the window is locked, first. When forcible entry is necessary, remember that ordinary glass is cheaper than any other type of construction material.

For double hung windows insert an axe between the sill and bottom frame of the window at the center and pry the window up.

It may be possible to remove the glass from its frame by removing the bead of rubber or strip of wood that holds the glass in the frame. Usually, this is too time consuming.

Certain sliding windows can be pried up and out of their tracks.

On double windows which are hinged on the sides and open in the middle, insert an axe in the middle crack, half way up and pry.

Avoid breaking tempered glass windows, if possible, due to expense and dangerous shattering effect.

If time permits, the firefighter may be able to gain entry through a penthouse door or upstairs window and come down and open up the first floor door.